Christine Yang
Introduction
Foxes are mammals which are adaptive and can live in a number of different environments. They occasionally interact with humans and are appreciated for their ability to get rid of rodents and pests, but are also troublesome for their tendency to steal fowl. In our culture, we often assign many anthropomorphic traits and characteristics to different animals, and especially the fox. What are the first adjectives or verbs you think of when you think of foxes? Let's take a look at what other people answered.
What words do you associate with foxes?
We can see that foxes are typically thought of as cunning and sly animals who often hunt, steal, and sneak around. But where do these associations come from? Let's take a look at how the fox is described in literature. Here we can see the most common adjectives used to describe foxes in books available for free from Project Gutenberg.
Adjectives Describing Foxes in Literature
As we can see, books tend to describe foxes using more physical traits than character traits, with many color words such as "red", "gray", "black", and "white" appearing quite frequently. The character traits they do utilize generally match the ideas we saw the in the survey responses above, focusing on the fox's intelligence and cunning with words like "smart", "sly", "wise", and "cunning". It seems that our common connotations of the fox are reflected in our literature and these character traits persist throughout many centures. In this essay we'll explore a number of different themes and motifs of the fox in the classical and pre-modern world, and how these ideas might have developed.
Traits and Behaviors
Let's first take a look at how foxes are described in terms of their physical and behavioral characteristics by ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle, Aelian, and Pliny the Elder. Aristotle observes that foxes are born blind and in an "unfinished state", and the mother licks their young in order to warm them up and shape them to completion.,
The fox is also observed to run along the side of the pathway rather than on the path directly. This is perhaps related to the ancient folk etymology for the Latin word vulpēs meaning "fox", which is proposed to come from volvō ("to roll") and pēs ("foot") because foxes don't travel in a straight or direct path.
The fox is known throughout many texts for its ability to hunt prey in clever way. Foxes are seen hunting hares, fish, and a variety of birds. The Laconian hounds which were used for hunting are also said to have been born from foxes and dogs. In Thrace and other "frostbound countries", foxes are also known for their "formidable sagacity" and people watch them to determine whether the ice on a frozen river is strong enough to cross.
Aelian, On Animals 6.24
Foxes were also hunted by humans for their warm fur and to prevent them from stealing chickens. They were known to be difficult to catch using traps, and when they were caught they were known to bite off their own leg in order to escape. Because of this, foxes were most commonly hunted using dogs, although Oppian warns that foxes still put up quite a fight and inflict wounds upon the hounds.
Oppian, Cynegetica 3.449-460
Aelian also describes hunting practices in India, where they train birds to hunt foxes for them. They first take a domesticated fox and attach pieces of meat to them. Then, they let the foxes loose and the birds fly after them, drawn by the meat. This way, the birds are trained to hunt down foxes and bring them back to their owners.
Fox fur wasn't used very widely outside of Thrace, which was known for its distinctive use of fox fur. In Thrace, the soldiers wore alopekis hats made of fox fur and the women wore fox fur bassara costumes during celebrations of Dionysus.
Foxes were also given as love gifts between male homosexual lovers in Athens, typically given by the erastes (the older man) to the eromenos (the younger man). Smaller foxes such as fennec foxes which are found in North Africa were sometimes kept as pets.
Foxes are also noted to have medicinal uses in the classical world. Sores can be treated by fox fat, and gout is said to be remedied by a fox "boiled down alive until only the bones remain". A supposed way of protecting chickens from foxes was to feed the chickens dried fox liver or put some fox skin around their necks, in which case the foxes wouldn't touch them.
Relationships with Other Animals
Classical writers also make many observations of how the fox interacts with others in the animal world, and especially make note of how it tricks its predators and prey. These kinds of relationships can also be seen reflected in fable, as the fox, who is almost always female, interacts with others typically in a negative or inimical manner. We can especially see this in Aesop's fables, where the fox is typically shown tricking other animals and taking advantage of them and the situation. Let's take a look at which animals the fox is seen interacting with most frequently in Aesops' fables.
Frequency of Interactions in Aesop's Fables
As we can see, the fox appears most frequently in Aesopian fables with the lion and the wolf, and doesn't appear in any stories with the bird, snake, or sheep. The fox and lion as a pair seems to be especially prevalent, as both are seen interacting with each other the most. These trends however don't seem to be reflected in classical observations of foxes, as the fox naturally does not encounter lions and wolves as frequently as it does animals of prey such as birds or hares. Now let's see how ancient writers describe foxes' relationships with other animals outside of fable.
Motifs and Imagery
From these descriptions, we can begin to get a picture of some of the character traits associated with the fox through its behavior. The fox is described as "mischeivous", "wicked", and "full of guile", and this idea of the fox as a trickster interestingly persists throughout many depictions of the fox in different cultures. In addition to the association with trickery, the fox is also frequently linked to damage and destruction. We see foxes bring about damage through spreading fire, pillaging vineyards, and seducing or possessing humans through magical abilities. In a similar strain, we also see the negative connotation of the fox develop into a connection to the devil in the Christian tradition.
Before we explore these themes in detail, let's take a quick look at some of the interesting stories about foxes we find around the world.
Stories of the Fox Around the World
The Teumessian Fox was sent to ravage the landscape of Thebes and it was fated to never be caught. It was sent either by Dionysus as a punishment for failing to recognize him as a divinity, or as a punishment for the death of the Sphinx. When King Creon ordered Amphitryon to deal with the fox, he sent the dog Laelaps to catch it since this dog was fated to catch everything it ever caught. In order to resolve this paradox, Zeus either turned them both to stone or sent them to the stars.
The swiftness of the Teumessian Fox and its characteristic of being uncatchable seems to reflect many of the ideas of the fox as a swift-footed and elusive creature, always managing to slip out of traps and escape. We also see the association between foxes and causing damage here, as the Teumessian Fox brought damage to the land of Thebes, just as Samson's foxes brought damage to the Philistines and the burning box set fire to the fields of Cerealia.
Trickery & Cleverness
Of the many traits associated with the fox, the most common by far is its ability and tendency for clever and cunning tricks. As we saw in the fox's interactions with other animals, classical writers often observed the fox using clever tricks to hunt prey, which perhaps explains in part the prevalence of the cunning fox character. The fox plays dead to hunt birds, kills the hedgehog through suffocation, hunts hares by running them to exhaustion, steals honey from wasps, and catches fish an almost human-like way by using its tail as a fishing rod. They are also known for their intelligence, as the Thracians observe their ability to tell whether the ice is safe to cross by listening to the currents.
We see much of this intelligence and trickery reflected in fable and folklore, as the fox is often shown deceiving other animals, and always seems to be able to escape from traps or unfavorable situations. One of the most well-known foxes from literature, Reynard, embodies many of these cunning and selfish qualities which we see reflected in Aesop's fables and other European folk stories.
Here's a look at how classical writers describe the fox's cunning and crafty nature.
"Furthermore, most cunning among all the beasts of the field is the Fox. Warlike of heart and wise she dwells in remotest lair, with seven-gated openings to her house and tunnelled earths far from one another, lest hunters set an ambush about her doors and lead her captive with snares. Terrible is she to fight with her teeth against stronger wild beasts and hunting Dogs. And when chilly winter comes and she lacks food, and the vines show bare of grapes, then she weaves a deadly device for hunting, to capture by craft birds and the young of Hares."
"Again, some are mischievous and wicked, e.g., the fox"
"You will tell me that the Fox is a creature full of guile; this is the fox that lives on the land. But the Fox-Shark..."
"The Fox is not to be captured by ambush nor by noose nor by net. For she is clever in her cunning at perceiving them; clever too at severing a rope and loosing knots and by subtle craft escaping from death. But the thronging hounds take her; yet even they for all their strength do not overcome her without bloodshed."
"Scion of Aegeus, ponder the fox-dog lest he beguile you; he’s treacherous, swift of foot, a wily trickster, and very crafty."
- Europe -
In European folklore, the fox is most often seen tricking the bear and the wolf. In one story, the fox tricks the bear into fishing by sticking his tail in a hole in the ice. The bear's tail inevitably freezes and he becomes stuck, and can only free himself through self mutilation. In the Reynard version of this story, the bear's wife is the one who is tricked, and Reynard then proceeds to force himself on her while she's stuck, thus adding an additional layer of selfishness and depravity to his deceptive actions. In another story, the fox tells the bear he'll give him a beauty treatment and convinces him to climb into a hayloft, upon which the fox sets the building on fire and singes the bear's fur.
In addition to causing harm and injury just for fun, the fox also uses its cleverness for its own self-gain. We often see the fox taking more food for itself when dividing prey with other animals or participating in a collaborative hunt. The fox also tricks other animals into helping it escape from traps, sometimes at the expense of the animal who helps them.
- Japan -
We also see Japanese stories of fox possession which usually involve a human being deceived or fooled while pursuing carnal desires. In one story, a man is tricked into eating rice cakes which are actually horse droppings, and in another story a villager is tricked into taking a hot bath in what is actually a cold river. In Japan we also see the concept of a kitsune no yomeiri ("fox-bride's wedding"), which is a colloquial saying expressing a "sudden rainfall". This phrase also has connotations of feeling deceived to be suddenly caught in unexpected rainfall, connecting to the strong association between foxes and trickery.
Fire
The fox is also often associated with fire, perhaps in part due to the bright color of its pelt and the shape of its tail which resembles a flame. We see many stories of a burning fox bringing about damage to the land. Some scholars suggest that in these stories the fox functions as a Korndämon, a corn demon from German folklore tied to the fertility of the crops.
- Ritual at Cerealia -
In ancient Rome, foxes were bound and burned alive during the Cerealia festival which celebrated Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture. This tradition was said come from a boy from Carseoli who once tied up a fox and set it on fire. When the fox escaped, it ran through the fields and set them aflame, and so now the fox is set on fire during Cerealia as a punishment for its past crimes.
Ovid, Fasti 4:701-712
This etiological story of the ritual provided by Ovid is likely made up as an explanation for an old tradition which nobody knew the origin of. Some scholars have proposed that the ritual was originally meant to keep disease away from the grain harvest, as the fox's red fur is linked to rōbīgō, the red "rust" that afflicted the grain.
- Samson and the 300 Foxes -
In the book of Judges in the Hebrew Bible, we see another story involving foxes and fire in which Samson gathers together 300 foxes and ties them together into one big knot. He then uses torches to set them on fire and lets them loose in the fields of the Philistines, so that the foxes end up causing great damage to their granaries, vineyards, and olive groves.
"I was so sure you hated her," he said, "that I gave her to your companion. Isn't her younger sister more attractive? Take her instead."
Samson said to them, "This time I have a right to get even with the Philistines; I will really harm them." So he went out and caught three hundred foxes and tied them tail to tail in pairs. He then fastened a torch to every pair of tails, lit the torches and let the foxes loose in the standing grain of the Philistines. He burned up the shocks and standing grain, together with the vineyards and olive groves."
Judges 15:1-5, Samson's Vengeance on the Philistines
- Finnish Firefox -
While these stories are typically linked to damage and destruction, in Finnish culture we see a different depiction of foxes and fire. Today we might recognize Firefox as the popular web browser, but in Finnish mythology the firefox is a creature whose tail sparkles with fire and creates the aurora borealis as it runs across the night sky.
- Kitsunebi -
We also see associations between foxes and fire in East Asian traditions. The kitsunebi (literally "foxfire") are mysterious balls of fire or light in Japanese culture, and were thought to evoke images of a fox-bride's wedding, as they resembled the lanterns typically used in marriage ceremonies. Foxes are also thought to have the ability to predict fires, as well as start fires or protect houses against fires, and people would give offerings to the fox in order to protect their homes from fire.
Devil & Sin
Following the negative connotations from the fox's association with fire and nasty tricks, the Christian tradition views the fox as a demonic animal and uses it as a symbol of the devil because of its duplicitous nature.
- Physiologus -
The tricks of the fox are likened to the false temptations of the devil. Just as the fox lures birds to its gaping jaws by playing dead, the devil similarly utilizes lies to lead humans to death, in the sense that he led Adam and Eve to transgress against God. In some accounts, the devil is described to appear in the form of a fox. The saint Hilarion ecounters the devil in a number of forms, including the form of a fox. The devil also appears as a fox to the Irish bishop Dunstan.
He is indeed of the dead, who also hath caused us to have death,
Also pretends that he ne’er does any evil to man,
Whose is the flesh that he eats, if a man is devoted to vain things,
These then to man are his sins, things of all kinds that are vain,
The devil devours him then, when he leads him with him to his downfall,
And with his numberless tricks, closely resembles the Fox."
Theobaldus, Physiologus, pg. 75
The fox is also compared to deceitful men who put up a false front and talk about others behind their backs. In particular, the fox is described as a double of Herod, who pretended to want to worship Jesus but secretly hated him still. This lying nature of the fox is then used as a means to teach about the sins of envy, pride, and leisure.
In one rare instance however the fox's behavior is praised rather than condemned for its sin. Theobaldus commends the fox for its behavior in biting off its own leg when ensnared in a trap, referencing a line from the Gospel, 'If thy hand or foot offend thee, cast it from thee, for it is better with one hand or foot to enter into the kingdom of heaven, than with two hands or feet to go into hell.'
Grapes & Vineyards
One of the most famous Aesopian fables is the story of the Fox and the Sour Grapes, which follows in the long tradition of associating foxes with grapes and vineyards. Classical writers in Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia often observed the fox eating grapes. While today they may be primarily known for stealing chickens, in the classical world they were mostly seen as a pest to the vineyard.
Foxes were observed to eat grapes from the vineyards during the warmer months, and then when winter comes around and the vines are bare they hunt small animals instead. This behavior contributed to the negative association of foxes with damage to land and agriculture, in a similar way to the damage caused by foxes and fire.
Let's take a look at some of the quotes showing the connection between foxes and vineyards below.
- Quotes -
"Near him are two foxes; one goes among the vine rows and plunders the grapes that are ready to eat, while the other uses all its guile to get his knapsack, and is determined not to leave the boy alone until he has only dry bread left for his breakfast."
"Catch for us the foxes,
the little foxes
that ruin the vineyards,
our vineyards that are in bloom."
"Soldiers are like fox cubs because they eat grapes in the farmlands."
"The foxes often share the harvest with man in such vineyards"
"And when chilly winter comes and she lacks food, and the vines show bare of grapes, then she weaves a deadly device for hunting, to capture by craft birds and the young of Hares."
- Dionysus -
Because of their association with vineyards, we see a number of connections between the fox and Dionysus, god of wine and vineyards. In Thrace we saw fox fur being used for the bassara costumes worn by women during celebrations of Dionysus. This practice is likely connected to the cult of Dionysus Bassareus, a version of the Dionysus worshipped in Lydia. The Lydians' word for fox, bassara, seems to be connected to the name of this cultic deity, as well as the bassara costumes worn in his honor. The maenads or Bacchae, female followers who worshipped Dionysus, were similarly called Bassarides in Lydia.
- Teumessian Fox -
One story which elaborates on the damage caused by foxes is the myth of the Teumessian Fox, who was sent by Dionysus to ravage the landscape of Thebes as punishment for failing to recognize his divinity. This fox was swift-footed and elusive, fated never to be caught. In response, Amphitryon send the magical dog Laelaps to hunt down the fox, since Laelaps was fated to catch everything it ever pursued. To solve the paradox, Zeus was said to have turned both animals to stone.
Eroticism & Femininity
Another interesting facet of the fox is its common association with eroticism and in particular feminine eroticism, which we can even see in our language today in how we use "foxy" to mean a sexually attractive woman. These sexual connotations appear to be especially prevalent in mythical figures from East Asian traditions such as the huli jing, kitsune, and kumiho.
- Egypt -
In Egypt, we also see a connection beteween foxes and sex, as the word for "fox" or "young fox" could be used to mean a lover or womanizer, and lovers could call each other "fox" to elicit sexual connotations. In Egyptian love poetry, we also see the fox in heat used as a common image, and the hieroglyph ms meaning "birth" is composed of three fox pelts, and the hieroglyph appears in a number of words relating to eroticism and fertility.
My young fox!
Your liquor is your lovemaking!"
song lyrics (Egypt, New Kingdom period)
The Culture of Animals in Antiquity, pg. 363
- Fox Spirits in East Asia -
In Chinese folklore, the huli jing is a fox-spirit which can take the form of a beautiful woman. They generally have negative connotations and are known for bewitching men, driving them to obsession in order to absorb their energy or essence. Fox spirits are most commonly female but can also be male, and while female foxes absorb energy through sex, male foxes must kill people to absorb the energy. The huli jing were greatly feared, and sometimes shaman would perform tests on a potential bride to make sure they weren't fox-spirits in disguise. Today the Chinese phrase can still be used to denote a seductive woman.
The kitsune in Japanese folklore is analogous to the huli jing from Chinese folklore. The kitsune is also a sly and seductive fox-spirit who can transform into a beautiful woman and enchant men. Because of its seductive ways, it's known for being involved in extramarital affairs and disrupting the ideals of familial responsibility.
In Korean folklore, the fox spirit is called the kumiho, who also appears as a beautiful woman in order to seduce men. They are described as "cunning and evil", and gains a tail for every 100 years it lives. Once it eventually has nine tails, the fox-spirit gains the ability to transform into a human.
One of the most popular tales of the kumiho which demonstrates the negative femininity often associated with these fox-spirits is the story of the Fox Girl. The story follows a family who greatly wishes to have a daughter but only has sons. They finally give birth a daughter and she grows to adolescence, at which point their livestock begin to die. One day the son witnesses the daughter reaching into a cow's stomach and pulling out its liver to eat it. The father however refuses to believe the son's testimony, and eventually she kills her parents and the rest of the animals, having been possessed by a fox-spirit. This story exemplifies the fox spirit as an "evil feminine force" and aims to teach Confucian ideals, implying that the family was wrong to give preference to the daughter and rather than the son.
Magic & Shapeshifting
Another theme we see associated with the fox is its ability for magic and in particular shapeshifting magic. We can see this in the fox's ability to transform into a woman in the East Asian tradition as well as in some European fairy tales featuring the magical abilities of the fox as it helps the hero.
- Fox Spirits in East Asia -
As we saw with the huli jing from Chinese folklore, fox-spirits were thought to possess certain kinds of magic and power, usually embodying the negative, evil, and feminine yin energy rather than the positive, virtuous, and masculine yang energy. Through possession, fox-spirits could create illusions and hallucinations, causing people to "go mad, talk nonsense, and laugh and wail uncontrollably." The Japanese kitsune is similarly described to have the ability to possess people or places, and various kinds of erratic behavior or physical illnesses could be diagnosed as fox-possession. The fox spirits from East Asian traditions also share in their ability for transforming into a beautiful woman, as previously discussed, and these themes of fluidity and shapeshifting can be seen in certain European fairy tales as well.
Guo Pu on the fox (China, Six Dynasties period)
Foxes in Early Chinese Tradition, pg. 17
- European Fairy Tales -
In a number of Euopean fairy tales we also see the fox function as a helper to the hero, offering advice and magical abilities to help him on his quest. The role of helper isn't distinct to the fox in these stories though, and in many stories the fox is one of a number of animal helpers, typically the last one who brings the quest or task to completion. In one story, the fox leaves the hero a hair from his fur and the fox will come running to his aid when he rubs the strand of hair. We also see tales involving shapeshifting magic. One story tells of a fox who grants the hero the ability to transform into a fox in return for the hero's help freeing the fox from a trap. Another involves the fox changing the hero into an animal or hiding him underground to avoid discovery.
Foxes in Modern Media
Today, we can still see these common associations of the fox appear in our books, movies, and even our language. Take a look at some examples of foxes in our media today. Can you think of any other examples not listed?
Foxes in Modern Media
- Foxes in Language -
We can also see foxes appear in our language through idioms, proverbs, and vocabulary. In some languages, we have different words for male and female foxes (e.g. fox and vixen in English, Fuchs and Fuchsin in German), while other languages don't make any distinctions between the two. We also see terms like foxy in English being used to describe someone who is either cunning or sexually attractive, especially for women. A silver fox can also be used to denote an older individual who is sexually attractive.
There are a number of folk etymologies for the Latin word vulpēs meaning "fox". One proposes that it comes from volvō ("to roll") and pēs ("foot") because foxes don't travel in a straight or direct path. Another idea was that the word comes from volat ("to fly") and pēs ("foot"), because they fly on their feet in how swift they are.
Idioms and Sayings
"Foxes are caught with foxes" (Finnish)
"The fox is cunning, but more cunning is he who catches it" (Romanian)
"Let every fox take care of his own tail" (Italian)
"Nothing falls into the mouth of a sleeping fox" (French)
"It is difficult to trap an old fox" (Danish)
"The successful prince must have the traits of both the lion and the fox. As the lion cannot protect himself from traps and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves." (Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince)
"Meet each man with friendly greeting; be the tail among lions rather than the head among foxes" (Matteya ben Heresh)
"Only the muddy fox lives" (Tswana riddle)
"fox in the henhouse" (English)
"as sly as a fox" (English)
"You will catch the fox with cunning, and the wolf with courage" (Albanian)
"If you have caught a fox, do not let it go by any means"
Sources
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